archaeology – Kate Macdonald

Naomi Mitchison’s The Blood of the Martyrs

This time, in the Really Like This Book podcast scripts catch-up, I’m in Ancient Rome, rereading Naomi Mitchison’s excellent novel about very early Christians in the reign of the Emperor Nero, The Blood of the Martyrs, from 1939. You can probably guess the ending already from the clues in the title, but, trust me: it may be a weepy, but it is an outstanding philosophical and theological thriller. It’s set around the beginnings of the Pisonian conspiracy of AD65, which tried but failed to assassinate Nero. The novel’s main protagonists have no idea that a plot is being hatched, because they’re mostly slaves or Romans struggling to earn enough to eat, and the real-life plot only emerges when the main plot of the novel is thundering to its climax.

It’s typical of Naomi Mitchison’s fiction to concentrate on the lives and ambitions of the working-classes and those without power. She was a Scottish socialist novelist who first began to be published in the 1920s and 1930s, and who died in 1999. She published over 90 books, and is most famous for her epic novel The Corn King and the Spring Queen (1931), which was about prehistoric fertility rites in Anatolia, heavily influenced by J G Frazer’s The Golden Bough, and Jane Harrison’s pioneering studies of classical Greek myth and religion. Mitchison took research seriously. She wrote many novels set in prehistory and early classical and Roman history, and was a pioneer in using a pure and undateable vocabulary spoken in a modern style so her characters sound unalienatingly familiar. No hists and thous for her: her Roman matron chatters like an English society lady of the 1930s, and figures from the New Testament sound like normal people.

This plot is about slaves and the very poor in Rome who are or who have become Christian, and are struggling to maintain their tiny Churches in an increasing atmosphere of suspicion. The economy of the Roman Empire is based on slave labour, and must continually acquire more slaves to replace those who die from starvation and ill-treatment. Slaves are not considered to be human, though some of their more benign masters, such as Flavius Crispus in the novel, do see the benefit of treating their property with care to have a better return for their investment in long-term service. Sometimes the worn-out slaves who can no longer carry a litter, say, or who have lost a hand in an accident, are not thrown out or sold, but given light work or retired to the family farm as a useful labourer. But most slaves get sold again once they’ve outlived their use to one master.

Another category of non-Roman citizen were the captured children of enemy nobles, who were brought up as fosterlings in nice Roman homes, until the day came when they needed to be put out of the way, perhaps into the army, or married off to someone who would be grateful. The novel begins in a sultry post-coital scene between Beric, a captive Gaulish prince who has grown up in the house of Flavius Crispus, who has just been doing what he’s been told to by his foster sister Flavia, a beautiful, spoiled and very nasty young woman, who hasn’t yet told the besotted Beric about her betrothal, to be announced that evening. Thus the novel begins with an uneven demonstration of power, between the Roman citizen and the non-citizen, between the emotionally cold and the hopelessly dreamy, and between a young woman with a very assured manner and young man who doesn’t know how shaky the certainties of his life are becoming. We can sense his vulnerability right from the first page, and can tell that things are not going to go well.

As Flavius’s de facto son, Beric runs the house for him, and manages the slaves. But once she’s established his life for us, Mitchison changes tack and begins to tell another story, of Manasses and Josias who were captured in a raid, and grew up as slaves in Rome. Their father had known Jesus’s younger brother James, so they were brought up as Christians, and by luck have managed to find other Christians while in captivity. In a third chapter we hear about a beautiful Persian girl born into slavery and taken from her mother (that’s the second girl the poor woman has lost) when she’s old enough to sell. She becomes Flavia’s newest and most tortured maid. And so on. Each chapter in the first half of the novel puts you inside the experience of sixteen slaves or freedmen and women, and gives you their stories in their own words or from their perspective. This technique of multiple voices isn’t nearly as confusing as you think it might be because Mitchison’s control of her material is absolute, and very subtle.

Reading these chapters, and learning how each story fits into the others, and how their tiny Church grew, is a bit like walking around the outside of a building with many windows. Each time you look through a window, or read a chapter, you see characters you’ve already met, or will meet, doing something slightly different or new or in the past or future, so that the composite picture becomes more detailed, and more nuanced. Some of the characters are already Christian when they arrive in Rome; others become convinced that Jesus’s words are for them, to give them something to live for. It’s quite acceptable at this point in the story to look out a New Testament, to read Paul’s letters to the Romans, to the Corinthians, to the Galatians, Ephesians, Colossians, Thessalonians, Timothy, Titus and Philemon. The tiny group of worshippers that Manasses serves as its deacon is the kind of Church that St Paul was supporting by letters on his travels. He’s in the novel too, in Part Three, when they’re all waiting for the lions, but we’ll get to that.

Every narrative voice in the novel belongs to a character. There is no third-person omniscient narrator, no authorial voice who knows more than the characters or the readers. It’s an egalitarian way to tell a story, which fits beautifully with the Christian ethos that the story illustrates, that everyone is equal and that every person is as important as each other. It’s also a technical tour de force, brilliantly executed, because it’s hard to spot the seamless change in perspectives from one character to another, when – zip – you’re out of Eunice’s bakery and back into Crispus’s house, or into the cellar where the Church meets to worship and receive strength from their beliefs. For a 1930s novel it is also egalitarian in gender and sexuality. Some characters love each other and happen to be men, and also love women: later fans of Mary Renault would have appreciated the delicacy of Mitchison’s touch, who wrote this novel when homosexuality was still illegal in Britain. Women too have equal status in the Church. A dancing girl called Lalage is a deacon alongside Manasses, because those who are strongest in the spirit become leaders, and she is strong.

When Beric is suffering most from the crumbling of his world’s foundations, he becomes aware that some of the slaves that he commands in Crispus’s household have some kind of belief that gives them strength. He joins their Church just as Nero arranges for some areas of Rome to be set on fire to clear the way for his latest architectural experiments. The blame for the fire falls on the Christians, who are enthusiastically rounded up by Praetorian chief Tigellinus, who is also seducing Flavia, now that she is a safely married and under-occupied woman. One by one the members of this small Church are arrested, beaten up, released, and then arrested again, because Nero and Tigellinus want to please the Roman crowds with a really spectacular Games, featuring burning women, chariot races, Christians and wild beasts and animal hunts. Other Churches exist in Rome as well as Manasses’ Church, but they are widely scattered, and rightly cautious about making contact in case they are betrayed by a smiling stranger. The novel ushers or pulls all the characters towards the Coliseum, some of them towards the spectator seats, and some of them towards the cells as the entertainment.

I mentioned that The Blood of the Martyrs is a philosophical and theological thriller. Many of the conversations are between characters trying to explain to each other what Christianity is, and what you do when you are one. In the third part of the novel Paul is in prison with the other characters, and is arguing with them about what needs to be done, and how baptism should be performed. He dictates his letters to other churches to Luke, the doctor who does his best for the prisoners after their torture, but really there is very little he can do for a raped woman who is about to be torn apart by tigers. Stoics and Epicurian characters are also present in the prison, political prisoners lofty in the knowledge that their intellectually superior beliefs do not let them in for such degrading and brutal treatment. But they are shaken by their inability to watch another person suffer and remain unmoved. By witnessing the deaths in the arena, people begin to be converted, and the seed of belief is transmitted by example and by loving kindness. It is a very moving image, drenched with sadness.

Underneath these small stories is our historical awareness of the Christian church at its beginnings, and of the other faiths prospering in Rome at the same time. The Roman Jews do not receive the persecution meted out to the Christians, but when Mitchison was writing this novel, the Jews were being persecuted mercilessly in Nazi Germany, and worse was to come. It’s pretty clear that Mitchison intended this novel to be read as a parable for the contemporary persecution of the Jews as well.

When I began to reread The Blood of the Martyrs I knew that I had not carried it with me through countless house moves for nothing: it is a marvellous, gripping read. But I also knew why I had not wanted to reread it for over twenty years; it is desperately sad, and full of tragic moments you can see coming, agonisingly, several pages off. Find your handkerchief.

Epic Poems You’ve Never Read: Beowulf’s Anglo-Saxon heroics

It’s the start of university teaching again in the UK, so this miniseries of Really Like This Book podcast script catch-ups indulges my passion for teaching epic poetry. If English literature is a forest, epic poems are the big knobbly roots that stick up out of the ground and get in the way. They’ve been there for a long time for good reason. I start in the sixth century AD, with that Anglo-Saxon epic of Danish monsters, Beowulf. Today’s link with the sixth century’s round-the-fire entertainment is The Lord of the Rings, so if you like that, you’ll like Beowulf. It’s got a superhero with a sword, it’s got the ur-monster Grendel, and his even more terrifying mother who is an underwater killing machine. It’s got a dragon, it’s got a hall of men being eaten up by a rampaging monster dripping blood, and it’s got stately kings and magnificent queens.

All that is great to read, but in reading Beowulf, we do have a problem. It’s not written in modern English, so we have to use translations unless you’ve done a year or two of Anglo-Saxon first. * Seamus Heaney’s version is very good. I like it mainly because Heaney’s version is that of a poet retelling the story while following the Anglo-Saxon poetic forms. The translations I used as a student were written by scholars of Anglo-Saxon. While they were all enthusiasts for the story and the culture it depicts, and in some cases they were also literature scholars as well as linguists, they weren’t always good poets. I got tired of clunky renderings of the exact match of sense and sound: I wanted story. Heaney gives the story in poetry.

When you read Beowulf, as with all poetry, it’s a good idea to read it aloud. Beowulf was an orally transmitted poem, memorised and recited as a set-piece performance in halls and at feasts. It was public entertainment, to be heard and marvelled at, and also remembered. Everyone would have known it as a familiar story, and it would have been received as an old favourite as well as a variant on an old form. The first word of Beowulf as we know it tells us this: it’s ‘Hwaet!’. That means, ‘listen, pay attention, I’m going to tell you about something worth listening to’. It’s a word designed for bellowing into a rowdy drinking hall, to make the drunks shut up and the idle pay attention. Heaney’s version starts the poem with ‘So.’, which is equally effective: a colloquial signal meaning ‘stop what you’re doing just a minute, and listen to what I’m about to say’.

The story begins in the hall of Hrothgar, a Danish king with a hall that was probably somewhere near Roskilde in modern Denmark. (There’s a huge metal music festival there now every year: is this a coincidence?) Hrothgar is a good king and a rich one; his queen is the great lady Wealhtheow, and he has a fine body of men as his war-horde. But he has a problem: he also has a monster. Something is attacking and eating his men, by night and in secret, and no-one knows where the beast lives, or how to stop it. So he sends out the word for help, and Beowulf’s ship arrives.

We could describe Beowulf as a professional hero, but that would be a very anachronistic view. We have to think ourselves into Anglo-Saxon culture, drawn from archaeology as well as ancient fragments of poetry and formal records. The lord of a hall offered hospitality without question to anyone who came to visit – this was a common feature of Bronze Age and Iron Age civilisations worldwide. Fighting men who had their own means – weapons, armour, servants and their own warriors, and a network of family and friendship connections – would find a welcome anywhere where they weren’t already involved with a feud or a bad kin relationship. Once the fighting man had come to visit, he might stay for a week, a month, or years, giving the lord service as required, and being treated as part of the fighting force. Beowulf is already royal, as the nephew of King Hygelac of the Geats, so he has high status, but he’s also welcome for his prowess. He’s an established hero, and the poem is full of stories of his deeds. All heroic fantasy novels, video games, films and avatar worlds that have any connection with pre-medieval swords and sorcery, are descended from Beowulf, no matter how remotely.

Here is a digression into book history, and the extraordinary survival power of stories. Beowulf was an orally-transmitted poem, and is around 1500 years old. It’s the oldest text in English literature. It was probably first created in the Anglian dialect, from the East of England. At some time in about 750 AD a written version was made using a different dialect of Old English, from the north or west of England. This was copied and recopied by different scribes for different clients, in different parts of the linguistic patchwork of the British Isles. The earliest copy of the poem that exists now dates from 1000 AD, and that was written in a Kentish dialect. So the poem was an English poem, it travelled around and existed outside the borders of small kingdoms. That single copy of the poem was the only one that survived, for 1000 years, without being burned, used as fish wrapping, or stolen and lost in a river at night, as probably happened to other copies that undoubtedly also existed. Finally, this ancient survivor was copied in the early eighteenth century on the instruction of its then owner, because the 1000-year old parchment was decaying fast, and it had been damaged in a fire. These eighteenth-century copies preserved the poem for modern study, and released Anglo-Saxon culture as an imaginative cultural force into modern society. Pause for a moment to think of all the other Anglo-Saxon poetry and stories and jokes and songs that were never written down, and have disappeared for ever.

Back to the plot: Beowulf makes his plan and lies in wait for the monster. At this point in the story, the Christian concept of ‘demon’ is used as a description of the man-eating monster, showing that the society that enjoyed the poem enough to write it down was also Christian. When the monster enters the hall for its nightly snack, Beowulf wrestles with it as it scoops up men to eat, and wrenches its arm off at the shoulder. Consider this for a moment: the poem has already mentioned Beowulf’s stupendous battles with underwater creatures, and his beyond-human prowess in war, so we know he’s a little bit supernatural. But here we’re hearing about physical strength, endurance, immense wrestling power, all without weapons: Beowulf must be a man-monster himself, but luckily for Hrothgar he’s on the right side.

So Grendel the monster (for it is he) is defeated, and runs back to his lair wailing, to die. The warriors feast in triumph, there is much rejoicing, but on the next night, a far worse terror enters the hall: Grendel’s mother. I have to say, the concept of a bully’s mother being more terrible than the bully itself seems a joke now, because Monty Python have massacred that idea into silliness. But if we read this from the Anglo-Saxon perspective, the mother of a monster has got to be worse than the monster itself, because of kinship laws and the transmission of a feud between child and parent. From the Christian perspective, Grendel wasn’t any old monster-demon: he was the son of Cain, so Grendel’s mother could be connected with one of the Old Testament demons like Lilith, which Jewish folklore later connected with Adam, Cain’s father. In any case, a female demon is more formidable than a male one. The fear of a powerful female who can defeat men, even eat them up, goes a very long way back in human culture.

Beowulf takes on Grendel’s mother in an underwater battle in the slime, and their combat is epic, lengthy and bloody. When it is over, the world returns to normal, the hero is feasted, and he sails away. But the poem is not yet finished. Many years later, Beowulf has become king of the Geats (the poem is very precise about details of Scandinavian ruling dynasties, because it also functioned as a history lesson for its original listeners). He has got to fight a dragon, because some thief or other has stolen a golden cup from the dragon’s hoard. Anyone who’s read The Hobbit will now be pricking up their ears: this is where Tolkien got the idea from for Smaug, and for Bilbo’s theft. Beowulf goes forth to attack and beat the dragon, and he dies.

The thing I particularly love about the dragon part of Beowulf is that it was the first known best-seller. The manuscript of the dragon part of the single surviving earliest copy of Beowulf is significantly more worn, and faded, and handled, than the earlier parts. The dragon part was almost illegible in the eighteenth century, and was obviously much more popular than the earlier parts since it had been used and copied from and simply touched by many more hands. That battle was epic, but it was also tragic, and noble. Interesting fact for medievalists: the death of Beowulf, and his conversations with his faithful warrior Wiglaf while dying, have a lot of similarities with the Malorian version of the death of King Arthur.

Any dragon in English literature is descended from Beowulf’s dragon, which itself came from Norse mythology, but there are other things in Beowulf the poem that we recognise today. Tolkien was a world-class scholar of northern languages and myth, and wrote many highly influential scholarly works dealing with dragons and northern mythology, as well as with the language and literature of that period and later. He too translated Beowulf (see the image posted above) with an extensive commentary. In The Lord of the Rings the Riders of Rohan and the culture of the Rohirrim are lifted straight from Beowulf, as are the names of Éomer and Hàma. The defence at Helm’s Deep is partially lifted from the Anglo-Saxon poem ‘The Fight at Finnsburgh’. When Beowulf and his men arrive at Heorot they are asked to stack their weapons at the door. When Gandalf, Aragorn, Legolas and Gimli arrive at Édoras, Hàma the doorwarden asks them to do this too. Wealhtheow, the queen of Hrothgar’s hall, and Hygelac’s queen Hygd, are the Éowyns of their day, and Éowyn’s offering of the guest-cup to Aragorn comes directly from Wealhtheow doing to same to Beowulf in Hrothgar’s hall. The lament of the Rohirrim that Aragorn sings to Frodo is a Tolkienised version of the Anglo-Saxon poem ‘The Wanderer’. Beowulf’s sword that dissolves in Grendel’s mother is startlingly close to the sword that the Witch-King of Amgmar stuck into Frodo.

We could go on hunting Anglo-Saxonness in Tolkien, and several people, principally Tom Shippey, have done so. Everywhere you look in Anglo-Saxon poetry, you can find things that Tolkien reused in Middle-Earth. But start with Beowulf: it’s the best and most direct way to return to the society Tolkien had in mind when he wrote his Rohan chapters. But read Beowulf for itself: it’s a grand poem, it won’t take you long (epic does not necessarily mean long), and it’s a window into a different world.

* The late Professor Duncan Macrae-Gibson taught me Anglo-Saxon, and recited the first stanzas of Beowulf to a harp (possibly also wearing Anglo-Saxon costume, but I’m not sure about that now), to open his first lecture. That is how to get your students’ attention.

Now posting on Vulpes Libris: Frank Fraser Darling’s Island Years, Island Farm

Over on Vulpes Libris I’ve posted a review of the Little Toller reprint of Frank Fraser Darling’s two books on living in the Scottish Highlands and Islands for several years in the 1930s and 1940s, Island Years, Island Farm. He and his wife and young son lived in tents and wooden huts on uninhabited islands, rebuilt walls and quays, regenerated abandoned farming land by hauling seaweed and sand up from the beach, and counted birds and seals. Idyllic but tough. A modern nature classic.

Connie Willis’s Doomsday Book

I fell into Connie Willis’s Doomsday Book with passionate gratitude, after wading through a run of disappointing novels. This novel, as Jo Walton has apparently said, is the one in which Willis got everything right, and it is superb. It won three awards, including the 1992 Hugo and the 1993 Nebula, and is a time travel novel in which an Oxford PhD student is sent back to the 1348 outbreak of the Black Death by mistake. Its structure reminded me immediately of Julian May’s The Many-Coloured Land (1981), in which characters go voluntarily back in time and find it rather different to how they had imagined it would be. Interspersed are episodes set in the present day, in which the evolving plot makes the fundamental problem, of not being able to communicate with the person in the past, a massive design flaw.

Willis recreates Oxford University academic arrogance so well, caricaturing just enough of the confident assertions of the Middle English tutor and the archaeologist that things will be exactly as they teach in tutorials. Nothing can possibly go wrong if Kivrin learns enough medieval Latin. Kivrin is eager, earnest and exceptionally hardworking. She has learnt dyeing and weaving in preparation for her role as a noble lady, memorised her languages, understands her cultural idioms and volunteers on an excavation of a tomb from the right period to get the hang of the church architecture. So does the tech specialist whose developing fever will skew his calculations to send her back in time by about thirty years, and so do some visiting students who later go to a dance in the city. Who could have thought that a virus could live so long?

For a novel with such a vast body count, it is unexpectedly funny, in the Oxford parts at least. The humour wells up first from the hysterical backbiting between academics determined to pull rank and gain position. It becomes darker as people begin to get ill and the city is put into quarantine, exasperation running ahead of desperation. It is positively graveyard when the bodies are piling up and still Mr Finch is worrying about the college running out of toilet paper and bacon. The visiting handbell group from the United States are mostly ludicrous, but their bells are essential for the plot. Tolling and chiming bells signify death and the passing of time, to remind us of the time passing for Kivrin in the plague period, and her deadline for catching the link back to the present day. Contrasted to this undernote of dread, the insouciance of the teenage Colin negotiating law, order and Oxford hospital nurses is simply joyous, an affirmation of nous and chutzpah all rolled up in polite Home Counties cheeriness.

Kivrin’s sojourn in 1348 is oppressive and unnerving. It is so beautifully written, we can feel the snapping frost, hear the cracking logs and frozen mud under the horses’ hooves, and imagine the textures of the clothes she has to borrow, and the filth in which they are caked. Kivrin arrives in medieval England with more than just a head cold. There are no drugs and no antibiotics to help her, other than the hi-tech boosters and immunisations she’s been given in the twentieth century. Surviving whatever it was that had knocked her flat for days, she becomes a children’s nanny, and then a makeshift hospital nurse, stacking up furs and blankets for the household to die in, and fighting for their survival alongside the dogged parish priest. She does all this because she cares so passionately for the people who saved her, and we come to care for them too, since every character is a person.

The children of this noble household are particularly heartbreaking: the enchanting six-year old Agnes who is everywhere she should not be, and the haughty, terrified Rosemund, destined to be married to a fifty-year old neighbour at the age of twelve. Against all the deaths and the inevitability of dying of plague, the hopeless feelings Gawayn the knight and Eliwys the lady of the manor have for each other are both futile and necessary: we all have to live for something or someone.

Hand me a petrel: Robert Atkinson’s Island-Going

We’re in the Outer Hebrides in the 1930s in this Really Like This Book podcasts scripts catch-up, on a mad quixotic journey in the roughest of conditions to locate, observe and tag an obscure little bird called Leach’s fork-tailed petrel. Island-Going by Robert Atkinson is a classic of nature writing, of social history, and of the insanity of the obsessive scientist. I like to know about the practical arrangements behind scientific expeditions, and this one is particularly wacko. Atkinson was an Oxford undergraduate in 1935, or possibly a postgraduate, it isn’t very clear. He and his friend John Ainslie wanted to locate and record Leach’s fork-tailed petrel, in remote and unrecorded birding territory. They were drawn to the Outer Hebrides, mainly because of its relative ease of access from southern England, but also because, as the introduction to the Canongate edition of Island-Going says, very few people were even looking at the outer Scottish islands in the 1930s. Britain was very England-centred at that time, and Scotland was just a holiday destination. These chaps chose to study and pursue Leach’s fork-tailed petrel because it did have known locations, places that it had been spotted at in the past, and these were ludicrously remote even in a Hebridean context. The Flannan Isles, North Rona and St Kilda are practically off the map, so this was clearly a zestful challenge for two young Englishmen on their summer vacation.

The first trip was taken by travelling up to Cape Wrath, the most northerly westernmost point in Scotland, and taking a fishing boat to Handa Island. They observed birds, got familiar with the parenting habits of fulmars, watched the porpoises and peregrines, and every few days caught the fishing boat back to the mainland for a wash, decent food, and a replenishment of supplies. Camping on the island in the very rudimentary old cottage used by stranded sailors and the lambing crews was primitive, but primitiveness does not seem to bother Atkinson. The worse the conditions, the happier and more interested is his writing. There is no way I would want to recreate his experiences counting birdlife and sealife, but it is riveting reading.

In their second year, the boys – and they really were boys, only 19 and 21 – tried something more advanced, by going to the island of Rona and to the Shiants, which you can read about in Adam Nicolson’s Sea-Room. Atkinson got permission from Nicolson’s grandfather, the then owner, to land on the Shiants to observe the birds, but to get there they had to make a risky trip by boat, and to get the boat they first had to transport all their stuff – in seven packing cases – up from Oxford by car. This car was rather fragile in its construction, and didn’t really have much life left, but it did get their gear up to the far north-west coast for shipment over rough seas to their first destination, North Rona. The trip by drifter over to the island exposed the weak spot in their operating methods, since poor John Ainslie was a martyr to seasickness, and had to suffer so much of this in repeated approaches to the islands in rough weather, that he gave up going on the expeditions. They landed, they made a camp, they found prehistoric settlements, and at last, in the night, they could hear the peeping of Leach’s fork-tailed petrel as it flitted to and fro nocturnally. You couldn’t imagine a more difficult and elusive bird to observe. It was unknown where they came from, where they went when they’d stopped zooming around in the night on Rona for these few weeks in the year, and why they came there to breed. Hence, of course, the interest in observing them.

The birdlife is not the only interest in this delightful and really rather mad account of interwar ornithology. Atkinson is acutely aware of the life of the islands as well, through the history of the buildings: from tiny early Christian monks’ cells to nineteenth-century lambing pens and the bins of the seaweed-gathering industry. The history of the communities on the edges of the Scottish west coast were then just as unrecorded as the lives of its birds. When historians don’t speak or understand Gaelic, huge areas of history will disappear without anyone knowing. Interspersed between their own adventures, Atkinson is very keen to collect together the older notes of other travellers and scholars, making Island-Going a repository for all the information about one particular small island. The human history then becomes important again.

But the birds are really the focus, because there are so many of them. Hundreds of thousands of individuals roost and breed on the islands that Atkinson inspected, and he became familiar with entire populations. Not with single birds, because they were perpetually off and about, but with the habits of a species. The greater black-backed gull will prey on puffins, and turn them inside out while pecking out their meat. Fulmars squirt oil at anything and everything when they’re feeling unnerved, for protection as well as an alarm. The four kinds of petrels that spend a tiny part of their lives on land all lead a rather risky lifestyle, laying only one egg a year, and have no sense of which is their own chick when it comes to feeding time. Subsequently one chick might starve to death because its parents forget which one is their own, and feed another baby instead.

The boys also integrated with the human work on the islands, pulling the focus of the book back from horrible bits of bird corpse and broken eggshell. The annual sheep gathering on Rona wakes them up one morning, so they spend the day helping to round up sheep with fishermen and shepherds. They moved to the Shiants mainly because the opportunity arose when a friendly boat was going over there anyway. Its relative luxury of an intact cottage for sleeping in, and foliage that grew more than an inch high above the ground, made the Shiants seem paradisical compared to the rigours of Rona, stripped bare by Atlantic weather, but then they discovered the rats. The Shiants do have a rat problem, which will eat anything not nailed down or locked away. The boys struggled on, competing with the rats for their own food supply, to become perturbed when there was no sign of their return lift on the horizon. They did some rudimentary fishing to stay alive, and were rescued four days late, because their fisherman had just forgotten to come and fetch them. This was apparently rather funny, in hindsight.

The trip to the Flannan Isles brought the boys greater comfort: accommodation in a lighthouse, with lobster teas to catch. Sheep were pastured there, so they went in with the sheep boat, and stayed with the lighthouse-keepers for a few days. This takes the narrative away from ornithology to late industrial practices, with intense interest in the maintenance of the light. When not watching the thousands of resident puffins, the boys played golf on a five-hole course laid out for the entertainment of the keepers.

Atkinson's photo of Finlay McQueen outside his house on St Kilda (School of Scottish Studies, University of Edinburgh) — Atkinson’s photo of Finlay McQueen outside his house on St Kilda (School of Scottish Studies, University of Edinburgh)

In 1938 Atkinson’s expedition was to North Uist, St Kilda, and the Monach Isles, to get away from mainland Scotland as much as was humanly possible without actually going to Iceland. The Uists had red-necked phalaropes to watch, the Monachs had rabbits and lobsters, and also hosted a game of beach cricket between the incoming scientists and the locals, who were learning the game for the first time. On St Kilda, Atkinson was hoping to photograph the St Kilda wren, and maybe the St Kilda house mouse, of which only twelve had ever been seen. He managed to land in good weather, and was given the empty manse for his house, one of a string of stone-built cottages on St Kilda’s only street, all deserted by then except in the summer months. Three of the islanders were in summer residence, come back from their exile on the mainland to keep an eye on the island during its brief tourist season, and to sell postcards (but never on a Sunday). Snipe rootled around in the grass outside Atkinson’s front door, and the village was alive with all the St Kilda wrens he could want. There were also other bird stories to explore. The St Kildans used to catch and process fulmars for food and trade: their body oil used for train engines and lamps, and their feathers stuffed mattresses for First World War soldiers. Finlay McQueen showed Atkinson how to catch puffins by a long pole with a loop at the end. The St Kilda chapters are ghost-ridden, because this was the most famous of the Hebridean islands to be evacuated and abandoned, incapable any longer of sustaining life.

Atkinson’s last expedition before the war was an attempt on Ultima Thule, which means the ends of the earth, his facetious name for Sula Sgeir, a gannetry in the middle of the Atlantic. More vast quantities of birds, more primitive conditions, more astounding natural beauty, and more remnants of human habitation dating from when living was expected to be brutal and hard. This whole book is a record of survival, if not of the birds, then of the people who scratched a living from the earth in the middle of the sea. You’d never want to go and do it yourself, but it is a terrific record of its last survival.

Corncrakes on Coll: Kathleen Jamie’s Findings

This week’s podcast scripts catch-up from Really Like This Book is a blissful swim through Kathleen Jamie’s book Findings. Like Robert Gibbings, she writes discursively, moving randomly but purposefully from one subject to another as the observations she’s making surface from her memory. Findings filled me a great desire to get on a boat to go whale watching, or climb hills looking for old settlements covered in grass and nettles. It’s not a book to inspire great thoughts and philosophy, it makes you want to do the things she describes. I want to press this book into every Christmas stocking I fill, and send it out as birthday presents.

Findings is a book of chapters, written by a poet, about life. I would never buy a book from that description alone, but I bought this one when passing through a Scottish country town several years ago, because the cover shows you a big bird thermalling over sunlit Highland hills, the sort of hills I grew up walking when I was a sulky teenager. Nostalgia for the look of the hills drew the book and me to the cash desk together. Turn the book over: and there are the same hills, now surmounted with a blurb that speaks directly to me: ‘Between the laundry and the fetching kids from school, that’s how birds enter my life’. Kathleen Jamie’s life is richly populated with sparrow-hawks, corncrakes and dolphins. She goes to view the winter solstice on Orkney in the Maes Howe Viking mound. She goes to an old people’s home on Uig to see her granny, and travels to the ends of roads just to see what’s there. She avoids looking at a dead starling rotting on a roof while she’s waiting in hospital to see if her husband will survive a lung disease. She has a constant awareness of time running towards and past the time for fetching from school, and the making of meals. The domestic is patched in amongst the piercingly scientific.

Kathleen Jamie is a travel writer as well as Professor of Poetry at the University of Stirling. She is the easiest of writers to read, and an impeccable judge of balance and tone. This book of bits and pieces from her life, all rooted in observations from natural history in the most ordinary of moments, shows that ordinariness reveals startling beauty, that anyone can see the truth, but that we will all feel tired from looking too long. The life she describes is domestic and small-scale, and very discreet. It’s about what she sees, and how things strike her, in the midst of concentration and worry and a feeling that this life is going a wee bit too fast, there’s going to be no-one left to pick up the slack.

She’s a fortunate woman because she can find the time and space in an ordinary domestic routine to get away and think, and cycle, and walk. She’s usually on her own in the jaunts she describes: up a hill, overlooking a salmon-leap, or walking on a road. For a woman with a young family that is an immense and not altogether guiltless luxury: I envy her the clarity of mind to be able to take that time to be by herself. Her purpose is to investigate things, things that interest her, though we’re not told why, exactly, she goes to the Hebridean island of Coll to look for corncrakes with a bird protection warden, or to the Monach Isles to look for a gannet’s skull. It’s much more interesting what she does there, what she writes in her notebook. I so enjoy the amused resignation she feels when realising that she can’t read her own hand-writing, or that her tracing of a Pictish cup mark in a rock looks like nothing on earth but a fried egg. I don’t know why she’s in Surgeon’s Hall in Edinburgh, looking at bottled specimens, but I’m quite attracted by the idea of spotting an interesting wind-vane on the skyline, and then taking a telescope up a hill to have a good look over the city at all the other unseen weather-vanes and cockerels on the city roofs. All the things she does are things anyone could do, if we just planned a bit, and took the time.

She’s a glutton for detail and seeing how other people act. She laughs at herself and she’s affectionate about the folk she meets. She thinks a great deal about dead people whose traces she finds in her own life, and she’s very closely attached to the live people in her life. When she invites us into her life through this book, we’re immediately taken out the back to be shown something interesting.

Another of her books of essays, also tremendous.

I’ll take you through a chapter of Findings, to show you the kind of writer Kathleen Jamie is. It’s called ‘Crex-Crex’, which is the noise a corncrake makes. I didn’t know about corncrakes at all till I read this book, but that’s not surprising because they hardly exist at all in the UK, only on Coll. The chapter starts with a description of Constable’s painting The Hay-Wain, which is on the wall in her Coll B&B. Out of the window she can see a red boat drawn up on the beach, and yellow irises. Coll is a tiny island, so you’re never far from the sound of the sea, and it’s a home for the corncrake, which John Constable would have heard freely in the Suffolk fields when he packed up his easel after finishing the Hay Wain, on the other side and end of Britain. On Coll, Saturday night is party night for courting corncrakes, so Kathleen goes corncrake counting with the RSPB warden. She has to drive the Land Rover over the wet sand of the foreshore fast enough to not sink. She thinks about the fact that John Clare, a poet from Constable country, was one of the very few people of his day to write about corncrakes because the bird was so common in the early nineteenth century. There are only 160 folk living on Coll. By 2am Kathleen and the warden have counted 73 courting male corncrakes. The warden counts lapwing nests too, ignoring the dive-bombing birds while she makes notes on her spreadsheet. By finding a way to live on Coll, the corncrake has become a Hebridean bird of beaches and windblown peatlands, successfully adapting from being a flatland and fenland bird of the English mainland.

I wonder, has it changed its accent? Incoming English settlers to Scotland rarely manage to change their accents, unless they arrive very young and assimilate in school playgrounds. Incoming adults tend to use Scottish words self-consciously, sounding out of place, but once they’ve lived in Scotland long enough it doesn’t matter very much. Do the Coll corncrakes use inserted sounds from the natives? Kathleen meets an Englishman on holiday, who grabs a few hours of birdwatching while his young family are on the beach, because he really wants to see a corncrake. ‘They’re like the little gods of the field’, he admits, a little embarrassed. This is is a good way to think about the birds that migrate, and the birds who change their habitat to survive. Being part of the place you live in is so much more important than the accent you speak in.

Oliver Rackham’s The History of the Countryside

Oliver Rackham is the subject of this week’s Really Like This Book podcast scripts catch-up. He wrote a lovely and really rather long History of the Countryside, which came out in 1986. I gobbled it down with great enthusiasm when I first read it, because then I was working in archaeology, and was very much into exploring the lumps and bumps in the British landscape. Rackham’s book is a detailed explanation of what the lumps and bumps are under our feet as we walk through the British Isles, how plants and animals have improved and altered them for their purposes, and why. Rackham is a historical ecologist, studying how the natural world worked and works: not just plants and animals, but also geology, weather and time. Rackham’s sense of time is a little more elastic than ours. At one moment in this book he will be considering geological time, in the formation of pingos and other landscape hollows over hundreds or thousands of years. In the next moment, he will be angrily showing us how the short-sighted practices of only a few years have permanently destroyed a landscape, or the chances of a tree or butterfly to regenerate. Rackham is absolutely not afraid to disagree with current conservation practice: one of the reviews of a recent book of his on trees calls him a slightly grumpy high druid. The History of the Countryside ends with a scathing concluding section called ‘conservation’, which really ought to have been printed in the colour of irony, since Rackham considers that ‘conservation’ is doing it all wrong. When he does give praise, it’s generous, but he didn’t find much to give in 1986, or 1994, when he reissued the book in an illustrated format, with updated arguments. He doesn’t suffer fools gladly, and doesn’t spare any of the land authorities who got it wrong.

The History of the Countryside starts small, and goes wide-scale and large-scale, moving from animals and plants, through woods, fields and trees, to grasslands, moors, ponds and the sea. But before all that, we have a master-class on how to spot things to look for in the landscape. This is where we learn to become amateur historians, looking at place-names, the written records, and parish boundaries. If you live in a place with a Norse name, the chances are that it was founded by Viking migrants in the middle centuries of the first millennium. If the field at the back of your house is called Beech Field, it’s likely that it was the only beech tree around for miles, and was a landmark, rather than a landscape full of beeches. If the local wood is called Beare Wood, it’s probably over a thousand years old, because of its Anglo-Saxon name. Rackham is very strong on looking at the real landscape, getting away from the computer screen to stand in the mud of the real thing. If you’re looking at your parish boundary on a map or on the ground, and can see a lot of very odd zig-zag angles, this would be a sign that the parish was established on ground that had already been divided up into strips of fields, which means the settlement was old, and that parish administration was a piece of modern interference.

Plants are important for telling you about the ages of things. Every plant can be used as a way to measure the passage of time. If you find oxlip in a wood, that wood is over a hundred years old. Lichen are excellent indicators of how polluted the air has become. Animals that we think are native, like rabbits and squirrels, might be naturalised, or introduced, and the reason for their introduction is worth investigating.

I think it’s on trees that Rackham is most eloquent: trees and hedges and what you can do with trees to harvest them, over the centuries. There are no trees mentioned in Domesday Book, which does not, of course, mean that Norman England had no trees, but that they were so common, and so normal, that they weren’t worth recording. Trees can be odd. Did you know, for instance, than an elm tree is very likely to be a clone of all its elmish neighbours? (If you are lucky enough to know of an elm that escaped the Elm Disease that devastated British elms in the 1970s.) If you’re standing in a patch of woodland that has a lot of elms in it, you’re actually looking at one single organism. It’s a rather unnerving thought, when you think about the suckers and root systems all connecting to each other, under your feet, but think also about what this structure does for their susceptibility to disease.

A fallen tree is not necessarily a dead tree, and horizontal trees live comfortably and usefully for centuries in a prone position. Even a dead tree is still useful and beautiful: it’s a home for insects and very small mammals; it’s an excellent playground for less small mammals; it lets other plants grow up around it by removing the leaf canopy above, and it looks terrifically dramatic in photographs.Techniques for managing trees and using them sensibly include coppicing and pollarding. Coppicing is when you cut the tree off at the ground, leaving the root to sprout again and produce a ring of younger trees from the same rootstock. Not all trees like this treatment. Pollarding is the same principle applied higher up the trunk, to keep the young trees out of the reach of browsing deer.

With his section on boundaries and hedges, Rackham moves away from how people have farmed the natural resources, to how they reorganise the land. Medieval field systems are extraordinarily complicated, but they make so much sense if you think of them as a perpetual cycle of land use, in different stages and places. Hedges are terribly complex, and also very simple: each species of plant living in a one hundred-metre stretch of hedge represents a century of the hedge’s age.

Roads run alongside hedges, and walls, and can be older than human habitation: deer and rabbits made the tracks that we still follow today. Prehistoric roads often have two versions, one for summer, on the lower ground, and one for winter, on a ridge, to get away from the mud in the valley bottom. Roman roads can be distinguished between those built in a hurry, on the march to relieve or attack another area, because these paid no attention to natural obstacles or existing landownership, and just pushed steadily through on a straight line for hundreds of miles. The other kind of Roman road, built with a little more leisure, changes direction slightly at each high point on the route, when the surveyor decided on the new day’s direction.

Old roads needed old bridges: did you know that the Anglo-Saxons built a ten-span wooden bridge over the Medway, the wide tidal river south of London and the Thames? We know almost nothing about Anglo-Saxon wooden structures because wood rots, and so nothing is left, unlike the stone bridges built a few hundred years later by the Normans, many still in use today. Roads to bring animals over the hills to market were long and curved. Roads that run between settlements in wooded farming country get deeper and deeper until they’re practically underground, hidden under an overhang of massive tree roots. Roads over empty rain-soaked moorland that were abandoned centuries ago might still have their original Roman flagstones, a centimetre or so beneath the mud.

Moorland is another Rackham passion. It is so apparently empty that it’s commonly assumed to be worth nothing, to contain nothing, and to be a good place to put things, like roads and houses and trees. If that happens, there’ll be no more moorland, no more habitat, no more hidden archaeology, and no more untouched wild space. Britain is such a small European country, compared to the vastness of France or Germany, and is an insignificant speck compared to Russia’s acreage. The surviving areas of open land in Britain are perpetually threatened by being eaten up with bracken or pine plantations, or dug up for fuel or garden compost, as well as being built on by roads and new housing. Rackham gets very angry indeed about the destruction of moorland by tree-planting because it was, in the 1908s, so clumsily done, and ill thought-through.

My favourite section of the book is about the holes in the ground: the ponds and dells and pingos and marl pits, mainly because they’re so mysterious. Geology forms them, people use them, animals fall into them, and plants silt them up; all that information can to be untangled, and still nobody really knows why they’re there, and how. I love the idea of meres that fill up with water during a drought, and empty in times of great rain: what mechanism causes that? I‘ve been down into the prehistoric flint mines at Grimes Graves in Norfolk, and they are truly as weird and beautiful as they look in the photos. Fish ponds and moats are familiar, but did you ever hear of a duck decoy before? It’s a pond with arms to chase ducks into, and then catch them at the closed end, for market or for the pot.

The History of the Countryside ends with the fenlands and the sea, which is nibbling away at the British coastline with increasing vigour. Cliff-top buildings are falling into the sea all along the east coast, and villages are sliding, very slowly, underneath the waves. Before the whole island gets washed into the North Sea, we need to go and look at it, and Rackham thoughtfully gives us 8 guided walks, with maps, photos and explanations, so we can see the things he’s telling us about. We have a Cambridgeshire walk (obviously his own stamping ground), a Highland walk in Aberdeenshire, a walk through Queen Elizabeth’s favourite forest in Essex, a walk through Swaledale in North Yorkshire, a look at the Lizard Peninsula in far south-west Cornwall, a robust walk in south Wales, a nice decorous Home Counties walk past Guildford, and a bracing seaside walk in North Norfolk. I think there’s something for everyone there.

If you enjoy a more scientific text, read Oliver Rackham, The History of the Countryside (1986). If you need the photos and maps to understand what he means by a braided river or a pollarded lime, look for Oliver Rackham, The Illustrated History of the Countryside (1994).

Category: archaeology

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Connie Willis’s Doomsday Book

Hand me a petrel: Robert Atkinson’s Island-Going

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